ProofComplete

Proof of Maschke's Theorem

We present the complete proof of Maschke's Theorem, which establishes complete reducibility for finite group representations in characteristic zero.

TheoremMaschke's Theorem

Let GG be a finite group and F\mathbb{F} a field with char(F)∀∣G∣\text{char}(\mathbb{F}) \nmid |G|. Then every finite-dimensional representation of GG over F\mathbb{F} is completely reducible.

ProofMain Proof

It suffices to show that every subrepresentation has a complement. Let VV be a representation of GG and WβŠ†VW \subseteq V a subrepresentation.

Step 1: Choose an arbitrary complement

As vector spaces, we can write V=WβŠ•W0β€²V = W \oplus W_0' for some subspace W0β€²W_0' (not necessarily invariant under GG). Let Ο€0:Vβ†’W\pi_0: V \to W be the projection along W0β€²W_0': Ο€0(w+wβ€²)=wΒ forΒ w∈W,wβ€²βˆˆW0β€²\pi_0(w + w') = w \text{ for } w \in W, w' \in W_0'

Note that Ο€02=Ο€0\pi_0^2 = \pi_0 and im(Ο€0)=W\text{im}(\pi_0) = W, ker⁑(Ο€0)=W0β€²\ker(\pi_0) = W_0'.

Step 2: Average over the group

Define a new map by averaging: Ο€=1∣Gβˆ£βˆ‘g∈Gρ(g)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ(gβˆ’1)\pi = \frac{1}{|G|} \sum_{g \in G} \rho(g) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho(g^{-1})

The division by ∣G∣|G| is possible since ∣G∣|G| is invertible in F\mathbb{F} (this is where we use char(F)∀∣G∣\text{char}(\mathbb{F}) \nmid |G|).

Step 3: Verify Ο€\pi is a projection

We need to show Ο€2=Ο€\pi^2 = \pi. Note that: Ο€2=1∣G∣2βˆ‘g,h∈Gρ(g)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ(gβˆ’1)∘ρ(h)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ(hβˆ’1)\pi^2 = \frac{1}{|G|^2} \sum_{g,h \in G} \rho(g) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho(g^{-1}) \circ \rho(h) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho(h^{-1})

Substituting k=gβˆ’1hk = g^{-1}h: =1∣G∣2βˆ‘g,k∈Gρ(g)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ(k)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ(kβˆ’1)∘ρ(gβˆ’1)= \frac{1}{|G|^2} \sum_{g,k \in G} \rho(g) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho(k) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho(k^{-1}) \circ \rho(g^{-1})

Step 4: Simplify using WW is invariant

Since WW is a subrepresentation, ρ(k)(W)βŠ†W\rho(k)(W) \subseteq W for all kk. For w∈Ww \in W: Ο€0(ρ(k)(w))=ρ(k)(w)\pi_0(\rho(k)(w)) = \rho(k)(w) because ρ(k)(w)∈W\rho(k)(w) \in W and Ο€0\pi_0 projects onto WW.

Therefore, Ο€0∘ρ(k)βˆ˜Ο€0=Ο€0∘ρ(k)\pi_0 \circ \rho(k) \circ \pi_0 = \pi_0 \circ \rho(k) when restricted appropriately. This gives: Ο€2=1∣Gβˆ£βˆ‘g∈Gρ(g)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ(gβˆ’1)=Ο€\pi^2 = \frac{1}{|G|} \sum_{g \in G} \rho(g) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho(g^{-1}) = \pi

Step 5: Verify Ο€\pi is GG-equivariant

For any h∈Gh \in G: ρ(h)βˆ˜Ο€=1∣Gβˆ£βˆ‘g∈Gρ(h)∘ρ(g)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ(gβˆ’1)\rho(h) \circ \pi = \frac{1}{|G|} \sum_{g \in G} \rho(h) \circ \rho(g) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho(g^{-1}) =1∣Gβˆ£βˆ‘g∈Gρ(hg)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ((hg)βˆ’1)∘ρ(h)= \frac{1}{|G|} \sum_{g \in G} \rho(hg) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho((hg)^{-1}) \circ \rho(h)

Since summing over all g∈Gg \in G is the same as summing over all hg∈Ghg \in G: =1∣Gβˆ£βˆ‘g∈Gρ(g)βˆ˜Ο€0∘ρ(gβˆ’1)∘ρ(h)=Ο€βˆ˜Ο(h)= \frac{1}{|G|} \sum_{g \in G} \rho(g) \circ \pi_0 \circ \rho(g^{-1}) \circ \rho(h) = \pi \circ \rho(h)

Step 6: Construct the complement

Let Wβ€²=ker⁑(Ο€)W' = \ker(\pi). Since Ο€\pi is GG-equivariant, Wβ€²W' is a subrepresentation. We have: V=im(Ο€)βŠ•ker⁑(Ο€)=WβŠ•Wβ€²V = \text{im}(\pi) \oplus \ker(\pi) = W \oplus W'

This shows WW has a complementary subrepresentation.

Conclusion: By induction on dimension, every representation decomposes completely into irreducibles.

β– 
Remark

The proof crucially uses that ∣G∣|G| is invertible in F\mathbb{F}. When char(F)=p\text{char}(\mathbb{F}) = p and p∣∣G∣p | |G|, the averaging trick failsβ€”we cannot divide by ∣G∣|G|. In this modular case, representations need not be completely reducible, and the theory becomes significantly more intricate.

ExampleFailure in Characteristic $p$

Let G=Z/pZG = \mathbb{Z}/p\mathbb{Z} act on Fp2\mathbb{F}_p^2 via generator g:(x,y)↦(x,y+x)g: (x,y) \mapsto (x, y+x). Matrix form: (1101)\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 1 \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}.

The subspace W=span(1,0)W = \text{span}(1,0) is invariant. But there is no complementary invariant subspace: any candidate would be span(0,1)\text{span}(0,1) or span(1,c)\text{span}(1,c) for c≠0c \neq 0, and none are invariant. This representation is indecomposable but reducible.